Liu Shan's 40-year reign over Shu Han: From young emperor to legendary general

In 263 AD, as the armies of the Wei Kingdom under General Deng Ai approached Chengdu, a decision was made that would reshape the history of the Three Kingdoms. Shu Han Emperor Liu Shan chose not to resist and opened the city gates to surrender. This decision made him the longest-reigning emperor during the Three Kingdoms period—although his forty-year rule ended with the fall of the empire. This emperor, who was never fully trusted, was he a mediocre ruler or a pragmatic figure trapped by the times and circumstances?

The Young Emperor: Liu Shan’s Starting Point of Power

Liu Shan’s birth name was Liu Shan, nicknamed Ah Dou, born in 207. Before he turned twenty, a war changed his life trajectory. In the Battle of Yiling in 222, his father Liu Bei suffered a crushing defeat and died at Baidi City. On his deathbed, Liu Bei entrusted his underage son to Prime Minister Zhuge Liang, a decision that set the tone for decades of political development in Shu Han.

In 223, sixteen-year-old Liu Shan officially ascended the throne. But it was less an inheritance of power than a transfer of a mere title. The real authority was already in the hands of Zhuge Liang. According to historical records, Liu Shan once told Zhuge Liang, “The affairs of state are managed by the Ge family; my duty is only to perform sacrifices.” This statement clearly illustrates the power structure at the time: a young emperor and a strong-willed chancellor.

The Zhuge Liang Era: How Liu Shan Survived Twelve Years of Power Politics

From 223 to 234, Liu Shan witnessed Zhuge Liang’s governance of Shu Han. The revered chancellor, symbolizing wisdom, implemented a series of reforms. He promoted “rule by law,” prioritized agriculture, cultivated military talent, and launched multiple military campaigns against the northern state of Wei—most notably the “Six Campaigns against Qishan,” which became the most famous military effort of this period.

What role did Liu Shan play during this time? In simple terms, he was a symbolic ruler. He participated in court affairs, but decision-making power was not in his hands; he issued commands, but execution was in Zhuge Liang’s control. However, this separation of powers was not necessarily a bad thing for the young emperor. Zhuge Liang’s competence helped maintain relative stability and development in Shu Han among the Three Kingdoms, while Liu Shan avoided the mistakes often made by young monarchs—impulsiveness, poor judgment, and overtrusting flatterers.

In 234, during the Battle of Wuzhang Plains, Zhuge Liang died. At that moment, the decade-long wait was over—Liu Shan was finally to take real control.

The Era of Jiang Wan and Fei Yi: Liu Shan’s Exploration of Direct Governance and Power Balance

The twenty years following Zhuge Liang’s death (234–253) presented new challenges for Liu Shan. Without Zhuge Liang’s capable leadership, he needed to maintain stability in Shu Han. His approach was to continue relying on capable ministers—Jiang Wan and Fei Yi—who became the real power holders during this period.

This era is often called Shu Han’s “Consolidation Period.” Compared to Zhuge Liang’s frequent northern campaigns, Jiang Wan and Fei Yi adopted a more cautious defensive strategy. Shu Han reduced large-scale military actions and focused on internal economic development and social stability. On the surface, this might seem like a sign of decline; but from another perspective, it reflected Liu Shan’s pragmatism—avoiding overexertion of national strength when resources were limited, which was a rational choice.

It’s worth noting that during these twenty years, Liu Shan was not entirely passive. He skillfully balanced between different powerful ministers, preventing any one from gaining excessive dominance and avoiding internal chaos. Such ability was rare in history.

Eunuch Politics and Decline: Liu Shan’s Final Decade of Dilemma

In 253, Fei Yi was assassinated. With the main power figures gone, a new character entered Liu Shan’s political stage—the eunuch Huang Huo. This marked the beginning of Shu Han’s decline.

Liu Shan’s favoritism toward Huang Huo became a major point of criticism among historians and commentators. Eunuch interference led to political chaos, weakened military defenses, and reckless decision-making. Meanwhile, General Jiang Wei continued military confrontations with Cao Wei in the north, but his frequent campaigns further drained Shu Han’s resources. The power struggles between eunuchs and generals, coupled with the emperor’s loss of control, signaled that the end was near.

By 263, when Deng Ai’s forces launched a surprise attack on Yiping and advanced toward Chengdu, Shu Han’s military strength had waned. Liu Shan heeded the advice of strategist Qiao Zhou and decided to open the city gates to surrender, avoiding a bloody siege. This decision sparked controversy—was it cowardice or rationality?

The Duke of Anle and Contentment: Life After Surrender

After surrendering to Wei, Liu Shan was relocated to Luoyang and granted the title “Duke of Anle” by the Western Jin rulers. He lived a relatively comfortable life under new rulers. Sima Zhao once tested whether Liu Shan missed Shu Han, to which Liu Shan famously replied, “Here I am happy, I do not think of Shu.”

This phrase, “Content and not thinking of Shu,” became an idiom used to describe ingratitude or indifference to one’s homeland. But from another perspective, Liu Shan’s words also reflect a pragmatic attitude toward life—since he could not change the current situation, he chose to accept reality and seek personal peace. He died in Luoyang in 271 at the age of 64.

Reflection on History: What Kind of Emperor Was Liu Shan?

Traditional historical accounts tend to give Liu Shan a poor evaluation. The “Records of the Three Kingdoms” states he was “a ruler who, when advised by virtuous ministers, followed reason; when trusting eunuchs, became dim-witted.” The implication is that capable ministers made him a good emperor, but trusting flatterers turned him into a foolish ruler. This assessment largely reflects the expectations of ancient bureaucratic standards for emperors.

However, modern scholarship offers a different perspective. Some scholars point out that Liu Shan managed to sustain Shu Han’s regime for twenty-nine years after Zhuge Liang’s death and balanced various factions within a complex political environment—an achievement requiring considerable political wisdom. He did not cause internal chaos due to power-hungry ministers, nor did he excessively interfere in their work, which could have led to disaster. Compared to many contemporaneous emperors, he managed this well.

His final decision to surrender, given the circumstances, was also reasonable. When unable to turn the tide, choosing to surrender to prevent the suffering of Chengdu’s soldiers and civilians was a pragmatic, humanitarian choice rather than simple cowardice.

Conclusion: Liu Shan’s Forty Years of Rule and the End of the Three Kingdoms

Liu Shan ruled Shu Han for forty years, the longest in the Three Kingdoms era. His reign witnessed both the relative prosperity of Shu Han and its decline and fall. He was not a ruler of great talent or vision, but neither was he entirely a mediocre ruler. His life story reflects the dilemma and choices of a monarch in turbulent times—facing a stronger opponent and internal power struggles, he spent forty years embodying what is real and what is responsible.

Perhaps the fairest evaluation of Liu Shan by history is not condemnation but understanding—understanding the struggles of a young emperor in a special era, and the choices of an ordinary man in an extraordinary position.